Series V: Leadership and Succession in Early Islam
By Professor Abdullahi Danladi
In my previous articles on leadership and succession in Islam, I examined the qualities and virtues of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (A.S.), the question of whether the Holy Prophet (SAWA) left the Muslim community without guidance regarding leadership, the event of Ghadir Khumm, selected passages from the Ghadir sermon and their implications, as well as the well-known incident often referred to as the "Calamity of Thursday." My intention had been to proceed directly to the events that unfolded immediately after the departure of the Messenger of Allah (SAWA), particularly the gathering at Saqifah and the position adopted by the Ahlulbayt (A.S.) in its aftermath.
However, the season of Dhul-Hijjah brought with it several significant commemorations that naturally demanded attention. The Hajj ritual itself and it's significance, the celebrations of Eid al-Ghadir, Eid al-Mubahalah, and the discussions they generated offered valuable opportunities for reflection on the place of the Ahlulbayt in Islamic history and thought. As a result, the continuation of this series was temporarily delayed.
That delay, however, may have served a useful purpose. Historical events are best understood when examined within their broader context. Before discussing Saqifah and the developments that followed the Prophet's demise, it is necessary to revisit the final days of his earthly life. The decisions taken during those days, the instructions he issued, and the reactions they generated form an essential background to understanding the succession question that emerged immediately afterward.
This article therefore serves as a bridge between the discussions of Ghadir and the forthcoming examination of Saqifah. It seeks neither to condemn nor to glorify any historical figure. Rather, it aims to present events recorded in the primary sources of Islamic history and invite thoughtful reflection upon their significance. The objective is not sectarian argumentation but historical inquiry. If leadership after the Prophet was among the most consequential issues confronting the Muslim community, then the events that occurred during his final illness deserve careful and sincere study.
One of the most striking features of the Prophet's final days was his continued concern for the future of the Muslim Ummah. Despite the severity of his illness, his attention remained focused not on personal affairs but on matters relating to the welfare, unity, and direction of the Muslim community after his departure. It is within this context that historians discuss the expedition of Usama ibn Zayd.
During the closing period of his life, the Prophet ordered the preparation of a military expedition to the northern frontiers bordering Byzantine territory. He appointed Usama ibn Zayd as its commander. This appointment was noteworthy because Usama was relatively young, yet he was placed in command of an army that included many senior companions.
Historical reports indicate that some individuals expressed reservations regarding the appointment of such a young commander over older and more experienced companions. The Prophet responded firmly to these concerns, reminding the community that similar objections had previously been raised regarding Usama's father, Zayd ibn Harithah, and affirming the worthiness of both father and son for leadership.
Numerous historical narrations further record that the Prophet repeatedly emphasized the importance of dispatching the army without delay. According to several reports, he insisted that the expedition proceed as instructed. Yet despite these repeated directives, the army did not depart during the Prophet's lifetime.
This delay has remained a subject of discussion among Muslim scholars and historians. Some maintain that concern for the Prophet's deteriorating condition caused many companions to remain in Madinah, hoping to be near him during his final moments. Others suggest that political considerations may also have influenced events. Whatever explanation one adopts, the historical fact remains that the Prophet repeatedly ordered the expedition and that it was not carried out before his passing.
Closely connected to this period is another event that occupies a central place in discussions of succession and leadership: the incident known in Islamic history as Raziyyat al-Khamis—the Calamity of Thursday.
The principal narrator of this event is Abdullah ibn Abbas (R.A.), whose account is recorded in both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Ibn Abbas would later recall the incident with visible grief and describe it as a great calamity.
According to the narration, during the final stages of his illness the Prophet requested writing materials and stated:
"Bring me writing materials so that I may write for you something after which you will never go astray."
(Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-‘Ilm, Hadith no. 114; Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Wasiyyah)
The statement itself is profound. The Messenger of Allah, conscious that his earthly mission was drawing to a close, expressed a desire to leave behind written guidance that would protect the community from deviation.
The narrations further report that disagreement arose among those present. Some wished to provide the requested materials, while others argued that the Qur'an was sufficient for the guidance of the Muslims. As the discussion intensified and voices were reportedly raised in the Prophet's presence, he instructed those gathered to leave, and the writing materials were never brought.
Consequently, the statement the Prophet intended to dictate was never recorded.
For centuries Muslim scholars have reflected upon the implications of this event. Sunni scholars have generally maintained that the Prophet chose not to insist upon the matter and that the Qur'an and Sunnah remained sufficient guidance for the Ummah. Many Shi'i scholars, on the other hand, have argued that the Prophet intended to leave a written confirmation regarding the leadership of Imam Ali (A.S.) and the future guidance of the Muslim community.
The exact content of the unwritten statement remains unknown because it was never committed to writing. Nevertheless, certain facts remain firmly established in the historical record: the Prophet requested writing materials, expressed his desire to provide guidance that would prevent the community from going astray, disagreement arose among those present, and the document was never written.
These are matters worthy of thoughtful reflection irrespective of one's theological orientation.
When considered together, the Army of Usama and the Calamity of Thursday present a remarkable picture of the Prophet's final days. In both instances, he issued instructions concerning matters he regarded as important. In both instances, circumstances arose that prevented the complete realization of what he had intended before his departure from this world.
Whether these developments are interpreted as misunderstandings, political disagreements, human judgments made under difficult circumstances, or signs of deeper tensions within the emerging Muslim community is ultimately a matter for historical analysis and personal reflection. What cannot be denied is that these events occurred immediately before one of the most consequential transitions in Islamic history.
Within days, the Messenger of Allah (SAWA) would return to his Lord, leaving behind a community that would soon face the immense challenge of determining its future leadership.
For this reason, it is difficult to understand the events of Saqifah without first appreciating the atmosphere that existed during the Prophet's final illness. The Army of Usama and the Calamity of Thursday are not isolated historical episodes. Rather, they form part of the broader context within which the question of succession emerged.
As students of Islamic history, we should approach these events with intellectual honesty, fairness, and humility. The objective is not to vilify any companion nor to inflame sectarian sentiments. Rather, it is to understand the past as accurately as possible and to appreciate the complexities faced by the first generation of Muslims. Their decisions would leave a lasting imprint upon Islamic history, theology, and political thought.
The questions that arise from these events continue to challenge historians and scholars alike. Why was the Army of Usama delayed despite repeated instructions? Why was the Prophet's request for writing materials not fulfilled? What guidance did he intend to record? How do these events relate to the succession debates that emerged immediately after his death?
These are not merely historical curiosities. They are questions that lie at the heart of one of the most important discussions in Islamic history: the relationship between prophetic guidance and political leadership after the Prophet.
In the next article, we shall turn our attention to the events that followed the Prophet's return to his Lord: the gathering at Saqifah, the selection of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph, the position of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (A.S.), the response of the Prophet's household, and the unfolding of a succession question whose consequences continue to shape the Muslim world to this day.
Only by examining the entire sequence of events—from Ghadir Khumm, to the Prophet's final illness, to Saqifah and its aftermath—can we hope to gain a fuller understanding of how the Muslim Ummah arrived at one of the most defining turning points in its history.
Selected References:
1. The Holy Qur'an: 5:67, 33:33, 42:38.
2. Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-‘Ilm, Hadith no. 114 (The Calamity of Thursday).
3. Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Maghazi, reports concerning the Army of Usama.
4. Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Wasiyyah.
5. Tarikh al-Tabari.
6. Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah.
7. Abdullah ibn Abbas narrations concerning the Prophet's final illness.
8. Usama ibn Zayd reports preserved in early Islamic historical sources.
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