Series VI: Leadership and Succession in Early Islam
By Professor Abdullahi Danladi
The passing of great leaders often marks the beginning of history's most difficult tests. During their lifetime, their presence settles disputes, unites hearts, and provides direction in moments of uncertainty. Yet the true measure of a community is often revealed not during the life of its leader, but in the moments immediately after his departure.
Few events in human history, if ever, have carried consequences as profound as the demise of the Messenger of Allah (S.A.W.A.). His departure from this world was not only the loss of a beloved Prophet; it was the beginning of a new chapter for a rapidly expanding Muslim community that suddenly found itself confronted with questions of authority, leadership, and political direction. The Qur'an had been completed, the message had been delivered, and Islam had spread across much of Arabia. Yet one question remained at the centre of unfolding events: who would guide the affairs of the Muslim Ummah after the Messenger of Allah?
In the previous articles of this series, we examined the unique personality of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (A.S.), the event of Ghadeer and its implications, the Prophet's final illness, the Army of Usama, and the incident remembered in history as the Calamity of Thursday. These events, when viewed individually, are significant; when viewed collectively, they appear as successive pieces of a larger historical puzzle.
As we now turn our attention to the moments immediately following the Prophet's departure, we encounter a scene that continues to command the attention of historians, theologians, and students of Islam more than fourteen centuries later. While members of the Prophet's household were occupied with the painful task of preparing his blessed body for burial, discussions concerning the future leadership of the Muslim community were already unfolding elsewhere in Madinah.
What transpired at Saqifah? Why did the Ansar feel the need to convene so quickly? What concerns motivated the Muhajirun to hasten to the gathering? Had the question of leadership already not been settled, or did different groups understand the Prophet's guidance differently? Most importantly, where did the Ahlulbayt stand amid these rapidly unfolding developments?
These are not questions raised to reopen old wounds or inflame sectarian passions. Rather, they are questions that naturally emerge from the historical record itself. Understanding them is essential for anyone seeking a deeper appreciation of one of the most consequential transitions in Islamic history.
It is to this critical moment—the gathering at Saqifah and the events that followed—that we now turn our attention.
When the Messenger of Allah (S.A.W.A.) returned to his Lord in the eleventh year after Hijrah, the Muslim community found itself confronted with a challenge unprecedented in its history. For twenty-three years, revelation had guided the affairs of the Ummah through the Prophet. Now the community faced the question of leadership without the physical presence of the Messenger of Allah.
It was at this critical moment that a gathering took place at Saqifah Bani Sa'idah.
The Ansar, who had sheltered and supported Islam during its earliest and most vulnerable years in Madinah, convened to discuss the future leadership of the Muslim community. Their concerns were understandable. They had sacrificed enormously for Islam, fought alongside the Prophet, and helped establish the first Islamic state. Faced with the sudden vacuum created by the Prophet's passing, they feared instability and believed that leadership should be addressed without delay.
News of the gathering reached Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, and Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah, who immediately proceeded to Saqifah. There they engaged in discussions with the Ansar concerning who should assume leadership of the Muslim community.
At this point, thoughtful reflection becomes necessary.
If many of those present at Saqifah had also been present at Ghadeer less than two months earlier, what explains the urgency with which the question of leadership was reopened? If Ghadeer had already settled the matter conclusively in the minds of all participants, why was there a need for debate? Conversely, if the gathering at Saqifah reflected sincere concern for preserving the unity of the Muslim community, how should one understand its relationship to the declarations made at Ghadeer?
These questions have occupied Muslim scholars for centuries and continue to invite reflection.
Different schools of thought have offered different answers. Some maintain that the declaration at Ghadeer concerned the spiritual rank, virtue, and closeness of Imam Ali to the Prophet rather than political succession. Others understand it as a clear designation of Ali as the Prophet's successor and therefore view the events at Saqifah as a departure from the Prophet's expressed intention.
Without prematurely imposing either conclusion, the sequence of events itself remains significant. The Prophet had repeatedly emphasized the position of Ali on numerous occasions. The event of Ghadeer was witnessed by a large number of Muslims. Yet immediately after the Prophet's passing, the community entered discussions concerning leadership that ultimately resulted in the selection of Abu Bakr.
The fact that these discussions occurred at all suggests that different understandings of leadership existed among the companions. Whether those differences arose from varying interpretations of the Prophet's statements, differing assessments of political necessity, or a combination of both remains a subject of historical inquiry.
Another important observation concerns timing. While deliberations concerning leadership were taking place at Saqifah, members of the Prophet's household, including Imam Ali and other close relatives, were occupied with the solemn responsibilities associated with the Prophet's funeral preparations. This historical reality has led many scholars to question whether the succession issue (if at all necessary) might have benefited from broader consultation involving all major stakeholders before a decision was reached.
Such questions should not be viewed as attacks upon individuals but as legitimate historical inquiries. The companions were human beings confronted with extraordinary circumstances. Their decisions were made under immense pressure and carried consequences that would shape Islamic history for generations.
What remains beyond dispute is that Saqifah marked the first major political transition in Islam. It was there that the question of succession moved from theological discussion and expectation into practical political reality.
The events of Ghadeer, the Army of Usama, the Calamity of Thursday, and Saqifah should therefore not be viewed as isolated episodes. Rather, they form successive chapters within a single historical narrative concerning leadership after the Messenger of Allah (S.A.W.A.). Understanding one requires understanding the others.
In the next article, we shall examine the position of Sayyidah Fatimah al-Zahra (A.S.), her reaction to the developments that followed Saqifah, the question of Fadak, her famous sermon, and the broader implications of her stance in understanding the earliest debates concerning authority, justice, and succession within the Muslim community.
References
1. The Holy Qur'an. Various translations and commentaries.
2. Sahih al-Bukhari. Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan. Riyadh: Darussalam Publications.
3. Book of Knowledge (Hadith of the Calamity of Thursday).
4. Book of Military Expeditions.
5. Book of Virtues of the Companions.
6. Sahih Muslim. Translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.
7. Book of Virtues of Imam Ali.
8. Narrations concerning Ghadeer Khumm.
9. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk (History of Prophets and Kings). Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah.
10. Ibn Kathir. Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah (The Beginning and the End). Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.
11. Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Cairo: Mu'assasat al-Risalah.
Includes numerous narrations concerning Ghadeer Khumm.
12. Ibn Hisham. Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (The Life of the Prophet). Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah.
13. Al-Baladhuri. Ansab al-Ashraf. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.
14. Al-Ya'qubi. Tarikh al-Ya'qubi. Beirut: Dar Sadir.
15. Ibn Abi al-Hadid. Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah. Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-'Arabi.
16. Nahj al-Balaghah. Compiled by Al-Sharif al-Radi. Various editions.
17. Al-Shaykh al-Mufid. Al-Irshad. Qom: Ansariyan Publications.
18. Allamah Amini. Al-Ghadir fi al-Kitab wa al-Sunnah wa al-Adab. Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah.
19. Wilferd Madelung. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
20. Ali Muhammad al-Sallabi. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq: His Life and Times. Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House.
21. Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i. Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Albany: State University of New York Press.
22. Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Ideals and Realities of Islam. Chicago: Kazi Publications.
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